II On distinguishing virtue

Q. What is virtue? What is its salient characteristic? ¹ What is its function? ² What is its manifestation? ³ What is its near cause? ⁴ What are its benefits? ⁵ What is the meaning of virtue? What is the difference between virtue and mode of life? ⁶ How many kinds of virtue are there? What produces (virtue)? What are the initial, medial and final stages in virtue? How many states ⁷ are obstacles to progress in virtue? How many are the causes of virtue? How many groups of virtue are there? What purifies virtue? Owing to how many causes does one dwell in virtue?

1 Virtue defined

A. ‘What is virtue?’ It is virtue of volition, ⁸ virtue of abstention ⁹ and virtue of non-transgression. ¹⁰ What is ‘virtue of volition’? It is this resolve: “I will do no evil, because, if I do evil, I shall have to suffer for it”. What is ‘virtue of abstention’? It is keeping away from occasions of evil. What is ‘virtue of non-transgression’? (Here) a virtuous man has no fault of body and speech. Again, the meaning of cutting is ‘abstention’. All good activities ¹¹ are virtue. It is said in the Abhidhamma ¹² thus: “The destruction of sense desires by renunciation (is virtue). This virtue can remove evil. It is the ‘virtue of volition’, the ‘virtue of restraint’ ¹³ , the ‘virtue of abstention’. The destruction of ill will by not-ill will, the destruction of rigidity and torpor by the perception of brightness, the destruction of agitation and anxiety by non-distraction, the destruction of uncertainty by the determination of states, the destruction of ignorance by knowledge, the destruction of discontent by gladness, the destruction of the five hindrances by the first meditation, the destruction of initial and sustained application of thought by the second meditation, the destruction of happiness by the third meditation, the destruction of bliss by the fourth meditation, the destruction (of perceptions ranging) from the perception of form to (the perception of) sense-reaction and the perception of diversity by the concentration of the sphere of the infinity of space, ¹⁴ the destruction of the perception of the sphere of the infinity of space by the {70|7} concentration of the sphere of the infinity of consciousness, the destruction of the perception of the sphere of the infinity of consciousness by the concentration of the sphere of nothingness, the destruction of the (perception of the) sphere of nothingness by the concentration of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, the destruction of the perception of permanence by the view of impermanence, the destruction of the perception of bliss by the view of ill, the destruction of the perception of self by the view of not-self, the destruction of the perception of the pure by the view of the impure, ¹⁵ the destruction of the perception of craving by the view of tribulation, ¹⁶ the destruction of the perception of passion by the view of the stainless, the destruction of origination by the view of cessation, ¹⁷ the destruction of density by the view of evanescence, the destruction of union by the view of separation, the destruction of fixity by the view of change, the destruction of the sign by the view of the signless, the destruction of yearning by the view of non-yearning, the destruction of adherence by the view of the void, the destruction of clinging and adherence (to essence?) by the view of the higher wisdom, the destruction of the adherence to delusion by the knowledge and discernment of things as they are, the destruction of adherence to dwelling ¹⁸ by the view of tribulation, the destruction of non-reflection by the view of reflection, the destruction of adherence to fetters by the view of the rolling back (of delusion), the destruction of adherence to the cankers of views by the path of the Stream entrant, the destruction of the gross cankers by the path of the Once-returner, the destruction of the subtle cankers by the path of the Non-returner, and the destruction of all cankers by the path of the Consummate One’’ — these are called the ‘virtue of non-transgression’, the ‘virtue of volition’, the virtue of restraint’ and the ‘virtue of abstention’. These are called virtue.

2 Salient characteristic of virtue

‘What is the salient characteristic of virtue’?: The removal of non-dignity by dignity. What is called ‘non-dignity’? A. It is transgression of virtue. There are three kinds of transgression of virtue: transgression of the virtue pertaining to the rules of the Community of Bhikkhus; ¹⁹ transgression of the virtue pertaining to the requisites; ²⁰ transgression of the virtue pertaining to the faculties. ²¹ What is ‘transgression of the virtue pertaining to the Community of Bhikkhus’? [401]. It is loss of faith in the Tathāgata owing to immodesty ²² and indecorum. ²³ What is ‘transgression of the virtue pertaining to the requisites’? When a man’s life is concerned with the adornment of the body, he loses contentment. What is ‘transgression of virtue pertaining to the faculties’? It is separation from wise attentiveness through not closing the six sense doors. These three constitute ‘non-dignity’. This is called the ‘salient characteristic of virtue’. {71|8}

3 Function, manifestation and near cause of virtue

What are its ‘function’, ‘manifestation’ and ‘near cause’? Excellent joy is its ‘function’. Non-repentance is its ‘manifestation’. The three meritorious activities are its ‘near cause’. And again, excellent delight is its ‘function’. Non-repentance is its manifestation. The shielding of all faculties is its near cause.

4 Benefits of virtue

What are the ‘benefits’ of virtue? Non-repentance is the benefit of virtue. This is in accord with the words of the Blessed One addressed to (the Venerable Elder) Ānanda: “Non-repentance is the benefit and gain of virtue.” ²⁴ And again, virtue is called excellent joy, the highest of all castes, the treasure ²⁵ and the noble. This is the ground of the Buddhas. This is to bathe without water. ²⁶ This is to permeate with fragrance. ²⁷ This is the shadow accompanying form. This is to wear the thread which must be worn. This is the sacred caste. This is the peerless training. This is the course of well-faring. If a man practises virtue, on account of that virtue, he will become fearless, ennoble his friends and be dear to the holy ones. This is the good ornament. ²⁸ This rules all conduct. This is the place, of merit. This is the field of offering. This is the ground of growth in noble companionship.

(He who practises virtue) will be steadfast in all good. He will fulfil purity of aspiration. Even in death he will be self-possessed. ²⁹ Accomplishing the freedom of suppression he will experience the bliss of artifice (?). Thus there are many merits of virtue.

5 Meaning of virtue

‘What is the meaning of virtue’? A. It means coolness, the higher excellence, action, nature and natural condition of the nature of suffering and joy. Again, it means the head, coolness ³⁰ and. peace. Why is it said that virtue is the ‘head’? A. If a man has no head he cannot get rid of the dust of passion from his faculties. Then it is called death. Thus the virtue of the bhikkhu is the head. Beheaded, (he) loses all good qualities. Thus in the teaching of the Buddha it is called, death. This is the meaning of ‘head’ in virtue. Why is it said that virtue means ‘coolness’? A. Just as the exceedingly cool sandal allays the fever-heat of the -body, just so does virtue allay the fever of the mind that fears after breaking the precepts, and induce joy. This is the meaning of virtue as ‘coolness’. Why is it said that ‘peace’ is the meaning {72|9} of virtue? A. If a man practises virtue he will be quiet of behaviour. He will not arouse fear. This is the meaning of virtue as ‘peace’.

6 Virtue and mode of life

‘What is the difference between (virtue) and mode of life’? ³¹ Practice, ³² energy, ³³ resolution, ³⁴ austerities. ³⁵ These are modes of life, not virtue. Virtue is also called mode of life. Virtue is called dignity. Feeling (?) is also called, mode of life.

7 Thee kinds of virtue

‘How many (kinds of) virtue are there’? There are three kinds of virtue: skilful virtue, unskilful virtue and non-characterizable virtue. ³⁶ What is skilful virtue? Bodily and verbal meritorious activities and right livelihood. (Here), because of absence of tribulation, good result ensues. What is unskilful virtue? Bodily and verbal demeritorious activities and wrong livelihood. (Here), because of tribulation, good result does not ensue. What is ‘non- characterizable virtue’? It is bodily and verbal canker-free activities and spotless livelihood. (Here) there is neither tabulation nor good result.

8 What produces virtue

‘What produces virtue’? Virtue produced in a good heart is skilful virtue. Virtue produced in an evil heart is unskilful virtue. Virtue produced in a non-characterizable heart is non-characterizable virtue. ³⁷

9 Stages in virtue

‘What are the initial, medial, and final (stages in) virtue’? The keeping of precepts is the initial (stage), non-transgression is the medial (stage) and rejoicing is the final (stage) in’ virtue. ³⁸

How many are the ‘obstacles’ to and how many are the ‘causes’ of virtue? A. Thirty-four states ³⁹ are ‘obstacles’. Thirty-four states are ‘causes’ of virtue.

10 Impediments and causes of virtue

Anger, malice, hypocrisy, agitation, covetousness, jealousy, wile, craftiness, resentment, disputatiousness, pride, self-conceit, arrogance, negligence, idleness, lust, non-contentment with little, not following the wise, non-mindfulness, harsh speech, evil companionship, evil knowledge, evil views, impatience, want of faith, immodesty, indecorum, indulgence of body mouth and palate, {73|10} vulgarity, contact with women, not honouring the teacher, non-practice of restraint of the senses, non-practice of concentration in the first and last watches of the night, not reciting the discourses in the first and last watches of the night — these thirty-four states are ‘obstacles’. A man impeded by any one of these cannot perfect his virtue. If his virtue is not perfected he will surely retrogress. The thirty-four states which counteract these (‘obstacles’) are the ‘cause’ of virtue. ⁴⁰

11 Groups of virtue (various)

11.1 First group of two in virtue

‘How many groups of virtue are there’? Group of two, group of three and group of four. What is the group of two? Precepts governing usage ⁴¹ and precepts governing prohibitions. ⁴² Those decisions of the Buddha which indicate what ought to be done by body and speech are ‘precepts governing usage’. Those decisions of the Buddha which indicate what ought not to be done by body and speech are ‘precepts governing prohibitions’. ‘Precepts governing usage’ are accomplished through the effort of faith. ‘Precepts governing prohibitions’ are accomplished through being mindful of faith.

11.2 Second group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: the virtue of discarding ⁴³ and the virtue of undertaking. ⁴⁴ What is called ‘discarding’? It is the destruction of non-virtue. What is called ‘undertaking’? It is the undertaking to keep many good precepts. Just as light dispels darkness, just so a man who discards non-virtues, by the discarding of those non-virtues, will be freed from ill-faring. Through undertaking to keep good precepts he can enter the path of merit. Through the destruction of non-virtue he fulfils steadfastness. ⁴⁵

11.3 Third group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue. Mundane virtue ⁴⁶ and supra- mundane virtue. ⁴⁷ What is ‘supramundane virtue’? The virtue which is fulfilled together with the fruit of the noble Path — this is ‘supramundane virtue’. The rest is ‘mundane virtue’. Through the fulfilment of ‘mundane virtue’ pre-eminence is accomplished. Through the fulfilment of ‘supramundane virtue’ freedom is accomplished. {74|11}

11.4 Fourth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: measurable virtue ⁴⁸ and immeasurable virtue. ⁴⁹ Incomplete virtue — this is called ‘measurable virtue’. Complete virtue — this is called ‘immeasurable’ (virtue), according to the declaration of the Buddha.

11.5 Fifth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: with limit and without limit. ⁵⁰ What is ‘with limit’? If a man undertakes to keep any precept but transgresses it for the sake of worldly welfare, for the sake of fame, for the sake of friends ⁵¹ , for the sake of the body ⁵² and for the sake of life, then his virtue makes worldly welfare its limit, makes fame its limit, makes the body its limit, makes life its limit. What is ‘without limit’? Here a bhikkhu undertakes to keep a precept rightly and does not entertain even the thought of transgressing (the precept) for the sake of worldly welfare, for the sake of fame, for the sake of the body and for the sake of life. How then will he transgress it? This is called virtue ‘without limit’.

11.6 Sixth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: dependent and non-dependent. ⁵³ Virtue that is connected with becoming is dependent on craving. The virtue that is connected with addiction to rites and ceremonies is dependent on opinions. The virtue that is connected with self-praise and blame of others is dependent on pride. ⁵⁴ These are ‘dependent’ virtues. Virtue that is for the sake of freedom is ‘non-dependent’ virtue. ‘Dependent’ virtue is not for wise men. ‘Non-dependent’ virtue is for the wise.

11.7 Seventh group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life ⁵⁵ and the virtue or enhanced practice. ⁵⁶ What is ‘the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life’? The virtue comprising purified bodily {75|12} action, purified verbal action and pure livelihood ⁵⁷ is called ‘the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life’. The remaining virtue of training is called ‘the virtue of enhanced practice’.

11.8 Eighth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: connected with mind and not connected with mind. What is ‘connected with mind’? It is ‘the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life’. What is ‘not connected with mind’? The other, ‘the virtue of enhanced practice’, in observing ‘the virtue of the fundamentals of the holy life’ the hearer ⁵⁸ accomplishes the austere and the lofty virtue. By this ‘virtue of enhanced practice’ one does evil. Because the Buddha did not declare that (i.e., the virtue of enhanced practice), it is a hindrance to Enlightenment. (Therefore one does evil).

11.9 Ninth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: inviolable virtue and spotless

virtue. ⁵⁹ What is ‘inviolable’? It is hearer’s virtue. What is ‘spotless’? It is the virtue of the Buddhas and the Paccekabuddhas.

11.10 Tenth group of two in virtue

And again, there is a group of two in virtue: virtue practised within a time-limit ⁶⁰ and virtue practised till the dissolution of the body. ⁶¹ What is practised for a short time and is not connected with life is called ‘virtue practised within a time-limit’. What is practised to the end of life from the time a man follows his teacher and undertakes the precepts is called the ‘virtue practised till the dissolution of the body’. There is time in the reward of virtue practised within a time-limit. There is no time in the reward of virtue practised till the dissolution of the body.

11.11 First group of three in virtue

What (is the group of) three (in virtue)? It is (the virtue of) quelling evil and not transgressing, experiencing and not transgressing, extirpating and not transgressing. ⁶² What is ‘quelling evil and not transgressing’? Though hitherto not experienced feelings not belonging to one’s practice arise, yet one does not suffer even the thought of transgression, in his mind—this is called ‘quelling evil and not transgressing’. {76|13}

What is ‘experiencing and not transgressing’? Having experienced a feeling one does not on that account transgress ever after — this is called ‘experiencing and not transgressing’.

What is ‘extirpating and not transgressing’? The noble individual ⁶³ extirpates various causes of evil through the noble Path — this is called ‘extirpating and not transgressing’.

11.12 Second group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue thus: tarnished virtue, ⁶⁴

not-tarnished virtue, ⁶⁵ tranquillized virtue. ⁶⁶

What is ‘tarnished virtue’? One clings to the appearance of a put-together- thing at first sight—this is called ‘tarnished virtue’.

The virtue of the commoner ⁶⁷ which is also the means of entering into the Path—this is called ‘not-tarnished’ virtue.

What is ‘tranquillized virtue’? It is the virtue of the Consummate One.

11.13 Third group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three (in virtue) thus: the virtue swayed by the world, ⁶⁸ the virtue swayed by the body and life, ⁶⁹ the virtue swayed by the Law. ⁷⁰

What is virtue swayed by the world’? A man, through fear, removes various evils following the will of the world — this is called ‘virtue swayed by the world’.

What is ‘virtue swayed by the body and life’? A man, through fear, removes various evils in order to protect his life—this is called ‘virtue swayed by the body and life’.

What is ‘virtue swayed by the Law’? A man, through reverence, removes various demeritorious states for the sake of the True Law — this is called ‘virtue swayed by the Law.’

11.14 Fourth group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue [402] thus: virtue allied to disparate desires, virtue allied to like desires, virtue allied to no desires. ⁷¹ {77|14}

What is ‘virtue allied to disparate desires’? (A man, while) tormenting others, undertakes to observe the precepts — this is called ‘virtue allied to’ disparate desires’.

What is ‘virtue allied to like desires’? A man undertakes to observe the precepts for the sake of happiness in the present life and for the sake of the happiness of freedom in the future — this is called ‘virtue allied to like desires’.

What is ‘virtue allied to no desires’? A man undertakes to observe the precepts, does not repent and benefits others — this is called ‘virtue allied to no desires’.

11.15 Fifth group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue thus: pure virtue, ⁷² impure virtue, ⁷³ doubtful virtue. ⁷⁴

What is ‘pure virtue’? Through two causes ‘pure virtue’ is fulfilled: the first is non-transgression; the second is confession after transgression — this is called ‘pure virtue’.

Through two causes ‘impure virtue’ is fulfilled: the first is wilful transgression; the second is non-confession after transgression — this is called ‘impure virtue’.

What is ‘doubtful virtue’? Through three causes ‘doubtful virtue’ is fulfilled: the first is the non-distinguishing of place; the second is the non-distinguishing of transgression; the third is the non-distinguishing of wrongful deeds — this is called ‘doubtful virtue’.

If a yogin’s virtue is impure he confesses and experiences the bliss of the purified. If he had doubt, he presently finds out the blemish and acquires peace.

11.16 Sixth group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue: learner’s virtue, ⁷⁵ learning ender’s virtue, ⁷⁶ neither learner’s nor learning-ender’s virtue. ⁷⁷

What is ‘learner’s virtue’? It is the virtue of the seven learner-individuals. ⁷⁸

What is ‘learning-ender’s virtue’? It is the virtue of the Consummate One.

What is ‘neither learner’s nor learning-ender’s virtue’? It is the virtue of the commoner.

11.17 Seventh group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue thus: fearful virtue, anxious virtue, fatuous virtue. ⁷⁹ {78|15}

What is ‘fearful virtue’? There is a man who through fear does not commit evil — this is called ‘fearful virtue’.

What is ‘anxious virtue’? A certain man, remembering an intimate friend from whom he is separated, is troubled with anxiety; owing to anxiety he does not commit evil — this is called ‘anxious virtue’.

What is ‘fatuous virtue’? There is a man; he observes the precepts of cow-asceticism ⁸⁰ or dog-asceticism ⁸¹ — this is called ‘fatuous virtue’.

If a man fulfils ‘fatuous virtue’, he will become a cow or a dog. If he does not fulfil, he will fall into hell. ⁸²

11.18 Eighth group of three in virtue

And again, there is a group of three in virtue: inferior, ⁸³ middling, ⁸⁴ superior. ⁸⁵

What is ‘inferior’? (A certain man) is affected with much passion, excessive passion, great passion and is impregnated with non-paucity of wishes — this is called ‘inferior’ virtue.

What is ‘middling’? (A certain man) is affected with subtle passion and is impregnated with paucity of wishes — this is called ‘middling’ virtue.

What is ‘superior’? (A certain man) is not affected with passion and is impregnated with paucity of wishes — this is called ‘superior’ virtue.

Through the fulfilment of ‘inferior’ virtue, one is reborn as a man; through the fulfilment of ‘middling’ virtue, one is reborn as a god; through the fulfilment of ‘superior’ virtue, one attains to freedom.

11.19 First group of four in virtue

And again, there is a group of four in virtue: partaking of deterioration, ⁸⁶ partaking of stagnation, ⁸⁷ partaking of excellence, ⁸⁸ partaking of penetration. ⁸⁹

What is ‘partaking of deterioration’? A certain man docs not remove what shuts out the attainment of the Path; he is not energetic; and he wilfully transgresses (the precepts) and thereafter conceals (his fault) — this is called ‘partaking of deterioration’.

What is ‘partaking of stagnation’? A certain man keeps the precepts and is not heedless, but he does not arouse aversion — this is called ‘partaking of stagnation’. {79|16}

A certain man fulfils virtue and concentration, is not heedless, but does not arouse aversion — this is called ‘partaking of excellence’.

A certain man fulfils virtue and concentration, is not heedless and arouses aversion — this is called ‘partaking of penetration’.

11.20 Second group of four in virtue

And again, there is a group of four in virtue: the precepts for bhikkhus, the precepts for bhikkhunis, the precepts for the not-yet-ordained, ⁹⁰ and precepts for the white-clothed householders. ⁹¹

What are ‘the precepts for bhikkhus’? ⁹² The Pātimokkha-restraints— these are ‘the precepts for bhikkhus’.

(What are) ‘the precepts for bhikkhunis’? ⁹³ The Pātimokkha-restraints— these are ‘the precepts for bhikkhunis’.

The ten precepts for male and female novices ⁹⁴ and the precepts for female probationers ⁹⁵ —these are called ‘the precepts for the not-yet ordained’.

The five precepts and the eight precepts for lay-disciples, male and female— these are ‘the precepts for the white-clothed householders’.

11.21 Third group of four in virtue

And again, there is a group of four in virtue thus: Virtue that is natural, ⁹⁶ virtue that is good manners, ⁹⁷ virtue that is law ⁹⁸ and virtue that is (the result of) former conditions. ⁹⁹

What is ‘virtue that is natural’? The virtue of the people of Uttarakuru— this is called ‘virtue that is natural’.

What is ‘virtue that is good manners’? Conduct conforming to rules of clan, caste, country, beliefs and the like—this is called ‘virtue that is good manners’.

What is ‘virtue that is law’? The virtue (of the mother of the Bodhisatta) when he enters the womb — this is called ‘virtue that is law’.

What is ‘virtue that is (the result of) former conditions’? The virtue of the Bodhisatta and the Venerable Elder Mahā Kassapa—this is called ‘virtue that is (the result of) former conditions’.

11.22 Fourth group of four in virtue

And again, there is a group of four in virtue: virtue as virtue, virtue as accumulation, virtue as ending, virtue as complete path of ending. ¹⁰⁰ {80|17}

What is ‘virtue as virtue’? Two kinds: skilful and unskilful virtue — these are called ‘virtue as virtue’. ¹⁰¹

What is ‘virtue as accumulation’? A good heart accumulates skilful virtue; a bad heart accumulates unskilful virtue. ¹⁰²

What is ‘virtue as ending’? A man ends unskilful virtue through the acquisition of skilful virtue; a man ends skilful virtue through the accomplishment of sanctity. ¹⁰³

What is ‘virtue as complete path of ending’? Namely, the four-fold right effort ¹⁰⁴ — this is called ‘virtue as complete path of ending’. The four-fold activity is to be understood thus: It is called energy and is not real observance of virtue — this is named ‘right effort’.

11.23 Fifth group of four in virtue

And again, there is a group of four in virtue: virtue of the rules-of-the-order restraint, ¹⁰⁵ virtue of the purity of livelihood, ¹⁰⁶ virtue of faculty restraint. ¹⁰⁷ virtue connected with the requisites. ¹⁰⁸

What is ‘virtue of the rules-of-the-order-restraint’? Here a bhikkhu dwells, being restrained by rules-of-the-order restraint, is endowed with good behaviour and lawful resort, fears even a small fault and well trains himself in the precepts in which he should be trained. ¹⁰⁹ ‘Here’ means in this Master’s teaching. ‘Bhikkhu’ means good commoner. Also it means learner, learning ender, unshakable one. ¹¹⁰ ‘Rules-of-the-order-restraint’ means virtue, manifestation, beginning, activities, protection, restraint, sloughing and unbinding. This is the entrance into the doctrines. By this the Good Law ¹¹¹ is accepted. This is the meaning of ‘rules-of-the-order’. Not transgressing through bodily and verbal action is ‘restraint’. ‘Restrained’ means accomplished in the rules-of-the-order-restraint. ‘Dwells’ means guards the four postures. ‘Is endowed with good behaviour and lawful resort’:— (In this) there is good behaviour ¹¹² and there is misbehaviour. ¹¹³ {81|18}

What is ‘misbehaviour’? “Here a bhikkhu gives someone bamboo staves, or flowers, leaves and fruits, or tooth-sticks and bath-powder; or he courts favour, speaking well or ill of others; or he is given to fawning; or he runs hither and thither and to far off places contrary to the rule, in order to invite folk to an assembly; or does such other actions censured by the Buddha and thus subsists by wrong livelihood—this is called ‘misbehaviour’. ¹¹⁴

And again, there are two kinds of ‘misbehaviour’: bodily and verbal misbehaviour. What is ‘bodily misbehaviour’? A certain bhikkhu goes to the midst of the assembly of the Order with pride in his heart, brushing past the venerable ones; he recklessly pushes them, or goes forward, or haughtily stands, or sits on a high seat before the venerable ones (sit), or keeps back the venerable ones, or sits pompously, or disdainful of the venerable ones disposes himself on a seat; or patting them (the venerable ones) on the shoulder, he speaks lightly to them. While the venerable ones go barefooted, he wears sandals. When aged and venerable ones walk on the path below, he walks on the high and broad road above. In various ways he slights and troubles (others). He withholds what is good from the younger bhikkhus. He gives what is mean to the venerable ones. Without permission, he bums fuel in the bath-room and opens and shuts the door. Or when he goes to the waterside, he enters it (the water) before them (the venerable ones) and twists and turns his body, or pats, in the fashion of rustics. When he goes to another’s house he enters abruptly, either by the back or by the front door; sits down and gets up in a disorderly manner; or he enters screened places and jokes with women and young girls and strokes their necks. Such misconduct is called ‘misbehaviour’ of body. ¹¹⁵

What is ‘verbal misbehaviour’? A certain bhikkhu has no reverence in his mind. Without finding out the wishes of the venerable ones he preaches on the Law or he preaches on the Pātimokkha; or he speaks to others patting them on the shoulder; or he enters another’s house and asks of a woman bluntly thus: “Madam so and so of such and such a family, is there or is there not anything to eat? If there is, let me have it. I want to get food”. Such words are ‘verbal misbehaviour’. ¹¹⁶

What is ‘good behaviour’? It is the opposite of ‘misbehaviour’. A certain bhikkhu has reverence in his mind, is obedient, is possessed of modesty and decorum and is thoroughly skilled in the postures. He has enough always, guards his senses and is abstemious as regards food and drink. He {82|19} never sleeps in the first and last watches of the night. He is endowed with wisdom and is aware of the paucity of his wishes. He is not troubled with worldly cares, is of energetic mind and deeply honours his companions. This is called ‘good behaviour’.

‘Lawful resort’ means lawful resort and unlawful resort. What is ‘unlawful resort’? “A certain bhikkhu goes to a harlot’s abode, a widow’s abode, a virgin’s abode, a eunuch’s abode, a bhikkunī’s abode, to liquor shops; he associates with kings, ministers, heretical monks, evil monks and with such fellows as have no heart of faith, never benefit the four classes and who are disliked by them (the four classes). This is called ‘unlawful resort’”. ¹¹⁷ The Buddha has declared: “A bhikkhu transgresses (the precept against) impure unlawful resort. What is ‘impure unlawful resort’? It is to go to a harlot’s abode”. ‘Lawful resort’ is obvious.

And again, there are three kinds of ‘lawful resort’: lawful resort as close reliance, ¹¹⁸ lawful resort as protection, ¹¹⁹ lawful resort as a bond. ¹²⁰

[403] What is ‘lawful resort as close reliance’? It is a good friend endowed with the ten meritorious qualities. ¹²¹ Owing to these qualities a man hears what he has not heard before and what has been heard is further expounded to him, he destroys doubt, attains to right views and clarity (of mind); and training himself well in the Law, believes strongly and deeply, and increases in virtue, learning, liberality and wisdom. ¹²² This is called ‘lawful resort as close reliance’.

What is ‘lawful resort as protection’? When a certain bhikkhu goes to others’ houses or to the village, he walks looking groundwards and not further than a fathom’s distance; his bearing is dignified, calm and orderly; he is reverenced by the people; he does not look at elephant-chariots of horse-chariots, or at men and women making merry, or at the balcony of the palace, or at street-stalls. Thus he does not look up and down in the four directions. This is called ‘lawful resort as protection’.

What is ‘lawful resort as a bond’? It is as the Buddha has said: ‘‘A bhikkhu dwells within the preen nets of his home and land” ¹²³ — this is called ‘lawful resort as a bond’. These are called ‘lawful resort’. Thus ‘lawful resort’ is fulfilled. Therefore, it is said, ‘endowed with lawful resort’.{83|20}

‘Fears even a small fault’ means fears the small faults committed in the course of training — this is called ‘fears even a small fault’.

And again, there is another teaching: One arouses unskilful states of consciousness — this is called slight error. One wishes to dwell far from this ‘slight error’ seeing and fearing the retribution thereof. This is called seeing danger in ‘slight error’.

‘Trains himself in the precepts in which he should be trained’ — What is the meaning of ‘should be trained’? It means the seven groups of restraint. ¹²⁴ ‘Trains himself’ means follows all (as taught above). This is called ‘trains himself (in the precepts) in which he should be trained’. This is called ‘virtue of the rules-of-the-order-restraint’.

Q. What is ‘virtue of purity (of livelihood)’? A. It is to be not guilty of wrong livelihood. What is wrong livelihood? It is trickery, ¹²⁵ talkativeness, ¹²⁶ insinuation, ¹²⁷ detraction, ¹²⁸ and giving in order to get more. ¹²⁹

What is ‘trickery’? There are three bases of ‘trickery’: —

One schemes, and wants to have the four requisites, coarse and different (from the fine requisites offered to one): a certain bhikkhu corrects his behaviour, temporarily, advertises himself widely, or harbours evil desires; coveting property, he hands over excellent robes and food (to others), and for himself wants what is coarse; or, he pretends as if he did not want to get (any); or, he accepts the four requisites simulating compassion for others—this is called the ‘trickery’ of scheming for requisites. ¹³⁰

A certain bhikkhu having evil desires and coveting property, simulates dignified demeanour, and says: ‘I have attained to meditation (jhāna)’ and recites the Discourses wishing to receive offerings — this is called the ‘trickery’ of the postures. ¹³¹

A certain bhikkhu who is covetous and talkative, declares to others: “I possess the Ariyan Truth and dwell in solitude;” or, “I practise meditation,” ‘‘My preaching is deep and subtle,” “I possess the signs of a superman.” ¹³² Thus, desiring gain, he extols himself. This is called the ‘trickery’ (of roundabout talk). ¹³³

Talkativeness means one is not genuine, flatters, jests and poses, hoping for gain. One causes amusement longing to attract gain to oneself. This is called talkativeness.

What is ‘insinuation’? A bhikkhu preaches the Law to a rich man whose support he desires. He longs for benefits and does not endeavour for mastery over his own heart. This is called ‘insinuation’. {84|21}

‘Detraction’ means that a man wishing to gain benefits, causes people to fear him, because he abuses them, or because he creates dissensions among them; or terrifies people with harmful actions.

What is ‘giving in order to get more’? He makes small offerings and expects great returns. This is called ‘giving in order to get more’. These many evil actions constitute wrong livelihood.

And again, there is another (teaching concerning) wrong livelihood: (It is) giving bamboo staves, or flowers, leaves and fruits, or tooth-sticks and bath-powder; or, it is to divine, or to interpret dreams, or to make astrological predictions, or to interpret the language of birds, or to conjecture concerning the auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of modes of walking; it is to worship fire ¹³⁴ and to offer flowers to it; or it is to drive a prosperous trade; or it is to lead armies; or it is to deal in sharp weapons. These, and such other activities constitute wrong livelihood. The not doing of these is called ‘virtue of the purity (of livelihood)’.

Q. What is ‘virtue of the restraint of the faculties’?

A. On seeing a form, hearing a sound, smelling an odour, tasting a flavour or contacting a tangible, a man resolves to be not entranced by the defiling aspects thereof, and he does not transgress. ¹³⁵ This is called ‘virtue of the restraint of the faculties’. This ‘virtue of the restraint of the faculties’ is fulfilled through nine activities ¹³⁶ :—

Through cutting down the signs of evil which arise in the faculties; through overcoming non-mindfulness; through not letting (evil states of consciousness) to continue, as (in the simile of) the man who saves his burning head; ¹³⁷ through restraint comparable to that of the Venerable Elder Nanda; ¹³⁸ through conquering evil states of consciousness; through attaining to concentration of mind with ease; through living apart from men who do not guard the faculties; and through living in the company of those who guard the faculties.

Q. What is ‘virtue connected with the requisites’?

A. Through eight ways one wisely reflects in accepting alms thus:

The first: one does not take (food and drink) for the sake of violent sport or intoxication; the second: one does not take (food and drink) for the sake of personal charm or beautification; the third; one takes (food and drink) in order to sustain the body and to preserve it; the fourth: one takes (food and drink) in order to stay hunger and thirst; the fifth: one takes (food and drink) in order to observe the holy life; the sixth: one always thinks that food and drink are intended to remove old ills and not to allow new ills {85|22} to arise; the seventh: one takes (food and drink) finding satisfaction with little; the eighth: one takes (food and drink) faultlessly and dwells in comfort. ¹³⁹

Q. What is ‘one does not take (food and drink) for the sake of violent sport or intoxication’?

A. “I take food greedily. I am strong. Therefore, I like violent sport, rough play, competing with others and running.” These constitute ‘violent sport’. ‘Intoxication’ means self-arrogance and dissatisfaction. It is likened to the state of an angry man who beats another. ‘Not for the sake of personal charm and beautification’: (Not like) those who wish to be loved for the fullness of their body and limbs and good looks, and do not know contentment, being full of desires. ‘One takes (food and drink) in order to sustain the body and to preserve it’: As a hub needs oil, so one yearns for the peaceful preservation of the body. ‘One takes (food and drink) in order to stay hunger and thirst’: One, always, takes little food. As a man uses medicine for a disease of the skin, so one takes. ‘One takes (food and drink) in order to observe the holy life’: One wishes to reach the Noble Path through the advantages of abstemiousness. Feeling as a man who eats the flesh of his child, one takes. ¹⁴⁰ “Intended to remove old ills and not to allow new ills to arise’: One takes not too little and not too much. As a man taking a mixture, so one takes. ‘One takes (food and drink) finding satisfaction in little’: One keeps one’s body safe accepting little, always treating one’s body as a nurse (treats a patient). ‘Faultlessly’ means one sets one’s body at ease with little. Using in this way, one makes the body faultless and escapes the reproof of the wise. Thus ‘one takes (food and drink) faultlessly and dwells in comfort’.

If one’s food is suitable, one never feels tired and one does not sleep in the first, middle and last watches of the night. In this way one fulfils tranquillity. Thus ‘through eight ways one wisely reflects in accepting alms’. Thus one should accept.

And again, these eight ways are shortened to four considerations: the consideration of what ought to be cut down, the consideration of reality, the consideration of being satisfied with little, the consideration of accepting little.

Q. What is ‘the consideration of what ought to be cut down’?

A. The state of not being addicted to ‘violent sport’, not being in a state of ‘intoxication’ and the state of not being concerned with ‘personal charm and beautification’ — these are called ‘the consideration of what ought to be cut down’.

Using ‘in order to sustain the body and to preserve it’, ‘in order to stay hunger and thirst’, and ‘in order to observe the holy life’ — these are called ‘the consideration of reality’. {86|23}

“I shall subdue the old ills and I shall cause no new ills to arise” — this is called ‘the consideration of being satisfied with little’.

“I shall satisfy myself with little and, being faultless, I shall dwell in comfort” — this is called ‘the consideration of accepting little’. These are the four considerations.

These four considerations are further shortened to three thus: consideration of cutting down, consideration of mean (lit. taking the middle between two ends), consideration of completion.

A man cuts down the attachment to sense-pleasures through the ‘consideration of cutting down’ i.e., removes hunger and thirst, destroys the old ills and does not cause new ills to arise. And again, by this ‘consideration’ a man destroys karmic weariness of the body. The others should be practised in the ‘consideration of mean’ and the ‘consideration of completion’.

And when one reflects on robes he understands that robes are for protection against wind, cold, heat, mosquitoes, gadflies and ants and for covering one’s unsightly shame-producing parts. Thus one practises ‘consideration of completion’. ¹⁴¹

And again, one reflects on medicines for ailments. ¹⁴²

If that is so, when should one make consideration?

As regards food and the taking of medicine one should make consideration whenever one takes (food and medicine). As regards robes and bedding one should make consideration at the time one accepts. And every day and every hour should one think thus: My life depends on others; therefore, I ought always to reflect’. ¹⁴³ Thus one should consider everything.

There are four kinds of use taught by predecessors thus: use as theft, use as debt, use as inheritance and use like a master. ¹⁴⁴

What is ‘use as theft’? Use (of requisites) by the transgressor of the precepts.

What is ‘use as debt’? Use (of requisites) by individuals guilty of immodesty, indecorum and wrong livelihood.

What is ‘use as inheritance’? Use (of requisites) by individuals who are strenuous.

What is ‘use like a master’? Use (of requisites) by the consummate ones.

And again, there are two kinds of use. Namely, unclean use and clean

use.

What is ‘unclean’? (Use of requisites by an) individual having modesty and decorum but who is not capable of wise reflection — this is called ‘unclean’. {87|24}

(Use of requisites by an) individual having modesty and decorum, who reflects wisely, knows, is self-moderated and is possessed of aversion — this is called ‘clean’. In this cleanliness one ought to train oneself always. Thus one should understand the four requisites. This is called ‘virtue connected with the requisites’.

11.24 Fifth group of four in virtue summarized

Thus ‘virtue of the rules-of-the-order-restraint’ should be fulfilled through higher faith; ‘virtue of purity of livelihood’ should be fulfilled through higher energy; [404] ‘virtue of the restraint of faculties’ should be fulfilled through higher faith and ‘virtue connected with the requisites’ should be fulfilled through higher wisdom.

Thus ‘virtue of the purity of livelihood’ goes together with the rules of the order, Pātimokkha. Why? Because, through separation from worldly affairs owing to non-attachment, one becomes quiet of behaviour and acquires restraint of bodily and verbal actions. These two kinds of virtue belong to the ‘virtue of the restraint of faculties’. What is the reason? If a man guards his mind in goodness, he can well protect his bodily and verbal actions. ‘(Virtue) connected with the requisites’ is ‘restraint of faculties’. What is the reason? One knows the aggregations and their dependence and is disgusted with them, and dwells in Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. It is as taught by the Blessed One thus: “A bhikkhu understands material food and the fivefold lust”.

‘Rules-of-the-order-restraint’ and ‘purity of livelihood’ belong to the ‘group of virtue’; ‘virtue of the restraint of faculties’ belongs to the ‘group of concentration’ and ‘virtue connected with the requisites’ belongs to the ‘group of wisdom’.

12 What purifies virtue

‘What purifies virtue’? If a bhikkhu who has accepted the teaching of meditation ¹⁴⁵ and is mindful of the seven groups of offences, sees another committing a Defeat-offence ¹⁴⁶ he falls from the state of a bhikkhu and lives in incomplete virtue. If he lives in complete virtue, he will acquire the excellent virtue. If he lives in complete virtue, he will acquire the excellent truth. This is the teaching of the predecessors.

If a bhikkhu sees another committing a Suspension-offence ¹⁴⁷ he confesses fully. If he sees another committing any other offence, then he confesses concerning that transgression to one person. ¹⁴⁸

If a bhikkhu sees another ¹⁴⁹ committing wrong livelihood, he makes a proper confession concerning that transgression. After he confesses, he resolves: “I will not do it again.” Thus having seen, he resolves. {88|25}

When he transgresses ‘(virtue of) the restraint of faculties’ or ‘(virtue) connected with the requisites’ he says: “I will not do it again”. If he resolves he will acquire excellent restraint in the future.

When a bhikkhu practises the purity of virtue, he does bodily and verbal actions that ought to be done. He reflects on his actions. He does well and removes ill. Reflecting thus he dwells in the purity of virtue, day and night. Thus doing he is able to purify his virtue.

What is the salient characteristic of the purity of virtue” ¹⁵⁰ One can control the passions, ¹⁵¹ destroy rigidity ¹⁵² and fulfil concentration. ¹⁵³ This is the salient characteristic of the purity of virtue.

13 Causes through which one dwells in virtue

‘Owing to how many causes does one dwell in virtue?’ Through two, one dwells in virtue. The first: one considers the tribulation of the transgression of virtue; the second: one considers the merits of virtue.

^¶ What is to consider ‘tribulation’? If a man transgresses virtue, he makes demerit and prepares evil places (for himself) and fears the four classes ¹⁵⁴ and doubting, blames the wise. Those who are virtuous avoid him. He is not taught meditation. Heavenly beings despise him. He is hated and slighted by all. When he hears others praising the merit of those who are virtuous, he feels sorrowful but does not believe it (the merit of those who are virtuous). He is always angry when he is amongst those of the four classes. He dislikes and hates (good) companions. He opposes those who are virtuous and takes the side of evil companions.

And again, he has not the patience to enter into the way of excellent concentration. If he adorns himself, he looks, especially, ugly. He is disliked even as excrement and urine are disliked by men. (He does not endure) even as a makeshift article does not last long. (He is worthless) even as mud is of no value in the present or the future. He is anxious and dejected always. He is ashamed and remorseful of the evil he has done and he has no peace of mind, like a thief in prison. He has no desire for the Noble (Law), as an outcast has no desire for a king’s throne. ¹⁵⁵ Though he is learned in the doctrine of wisdom, yet none honour him, even as a dung-fire (is honoured by none). He cannot find a good place in this life and after death he will go to an evil state.

If a man wishes to forsake evil and fulfil the merits of virtue, he should consider thus: The mind of the transgressor of virtue is distracted and dejected. The virtuous man, through strenuous endeavour, grows in belief and becomes an energetic individual endowed with faith. {89|26}

A man should protect his virtue, with all his strength, as an ant protects her egg, as a yak loves his tail, as one protects an only son or one’s sole eye, ¹⁵⁶ as a diviner protects himself, as a poor man protects his treasure and as a fisherman protects his boat. More (strenuously) than these should he honour and protect the virtue he has undertaken to observe. If he thus observes, his mind will be guarded, he will dwell in the peace of concentration and his virtue will acquire protection. {90|27}