The Ascetic Practices#
§1 55/113 59 Now, while a meditator is engaged in the pursuit of virtue, he should set about undertaking the ascetic practices in order to perfect those special qualities of fewness of wishes, contentment, etc., by which the virtue of the kind already described, is cleansed. For when his virtue is thus washed clean of stains by the waters of such special qualities as fewness of wishes, contentment, effacement, seclusion, dispersal, energy, and modest needs, it will become quite purified; and his vows will succeed as well. And–so, when his whole behaviour has been purified by the special quality of blameless virtue and vows and he has become established in the [first] three of the ancient Noble Ones’ heritages, he may become worthy to attain to the fourth called “delight in development” (A II 27). We shall therefore begin the explanation of the ascetic practices.
1 The 13 kinds of Ascetic Practices#
§2 Thirteen kinds of ascetic practices have been allowed by the Blessed One to clansmen who have given up the things of the flesh and, regardless of body and life, are desirous of undertaking a practice in conformity [with their aim]. They are:
the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice,
the triple-robe-wearer’s practice,
the alms-food-eater’s practice,
the house-to-house-seeker’s practice,
the one-sessioner’s practice,
the bowl-food-eater’s practice,
the later-food-refuser’s practice,
the forest-dweller’s practice,
the tree-root-dweller’s practice,
the open-air-dweller’s practice,
the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice,
the any-bed-user’s practice,
the sitter’s practice.
§3 Herein:
2 Meaning#
§4 1. Herein, as to meaning, in the first place.
i. It is “refuse” (paṃsukūla) since, owing to its being found on refuse in any such place as a street, a charnel ground, or a midden, it belongs, as it were, to the refuse in the sense of being dumped in anyone of these places. Or alternatively: like refuse it gets to a vile state (PAṂSU viya KUcchitabhāvaṃ ULAti), thus it is “refuse” (paṃsukūla); it goes to a vile state, is what is meant. The wearing of a refuse-[rag], which has acquired its derivative name [1] in this way, is “refuse-[rag-wearing]” (paṃsukūla). That is his habit, thus he is a “refuse-[rag-wear-]er” (paṃsukūlika). The practice (aṅga) of the refuse-[rag-wear-]er is the “refuse-[rag-wear-]er’s practice” (paṃsukūlikaṅga). It is the action that is called the “practice.” Therefore it should be understood as a term for that by undertaking which one becomes a refuse-[rag-wear-]er.
ii. In the same way, he has the habit of [wearing] the triple robe (ti-cīvara)—in other words, the cloak of patches, the upper garment, and the inner clothing—thus he is a “triple-robe-[wear-]er” (tecīvarika). His practice is called the “triple-robe-wearer’s practice.”
§5 iii. The dropping (pāta) of the lumps (piṇḍa) of material sustenance (āmisa) called alms (bhikkhā) is “alms food” (piṇḍapāta); the falling (nipatana) into the bowl of lumps (piṇḍa) given by others, is what is meant. He gleans that alms food (that falling of lumps), he seeks it by approaching such and such a family, thus he is called an “alms-food [eat-]er” (piṇḍapātika). Or his vow is to gather (patituṃ) [2] the lump (piṇḍa), thus he is a “lump-gatherer” (piṇḍapātin). To “gather” is to wander for. A “lump-gatherer” (piṇḍapātin) is the same as an “alms-food-eater” (piṇḍapātika). The practice of the alms-food-eater is the “alms-food-eater’s practice.”
§6 iv. It is a hiatus (avakhaṇḍana) that is called a “gap” (dāna). [3] It is removed (apeta) from a gap, thus it is called “gapless” (apadāna); the meaning is, it is without hiatus. It is together with (saha) what is gapless (apadāna), thus it is “with the gapless” (sapadāna); devoid of hiatus—from house to house—is what is meant. His habit is to wander on what-is-with-the-gapless, thus he is a “gapless wanderer” (sapadāna-cārin). A gapless wanderer is the same as a “house-to-house-seeker” (sapadāna-cārika). His practice is the “house-to-house-seeker’s practice.”
§7 v. Eating in one session is “one-session.” He has that habit, thus he is a “one-sessioner.” His practice is the “one-sessioner’s practice.” 57/115 vi. Alms (piṇḍa) in one bowl (patta) only because of refusing a second vessel, is “bowl-alms” (patta-piṇḍa). Now, making “bowl alms” (patta-piṇḍa) the name for the taking of alms food in the bowl: bowl-alms-food is his habit, thus he is a “bowl-food-eater” (pattapiṇḍika). His practice is the “bowl-food-eater’s practice.”
§8 vii. “No” (khalu) is a particle in the sense of refusing. 61 Food (bhatta) obtained later by one who has shown that he is satisfied is called “later-food” (pacchā-bhatta). The eating of that later food is “later-food-eating.” Making “later-food” (pacchā-bhatta) the name for that later-food-eating: later-food is his habit, thus he is a “later-food-[eat-]er” (pacchābhattika). Not a later-food-eater is a “no-later-food-[eat-]er” (khalu-pacchābhattika), [that is, a “later-food-refuser”]. This is the name for one who as an undertaking refuses extra food. But it is said in the commentary [4] “Khalu is a certain kind of bird. When it has taken a fruit into its beak and that drops, it does not eat any more. This [bhikkhu] is like that.” Thus he is “a later-food-refuser” (khalu-pacchā-bhattika). His practice is the “later-food-refuser’s practice.”
§9 viii. His habit is dwelling in the forest, thus he is a “forest-dweller.” His practice is the “forest-dweller’s practice.”
ix. Dwelling at the root of a tree is “tree-root-dwelling.” He has that habit, thus he is a “tree-root-dweller.” The practice of the tree-root-dweller is the “tree-root-dweller’s practice.” x., xi. Likewise with the open-air-dweller and the charnel-ground-dweller.
§10 xii. Only what has been distributed (yad eva santhata) is “as distributed” (yathāsanthata). This is a term for the resting place first allotted thus “This one falls to you.” He has the habit of dwelling in that as distributed, thus he is an “as-distributed-user” (yathāsanthatika), [that is, an “any-bed-user”]. His practice is the “any-bed-user’s practice.”
xiii. He has the habit of keeping to the sitting [posture when resting], refusing to lie down, thus he is a “sitter.” His practice is the “sitter’s practice.”
§11 All these, however, are the practices (aṅga) of a bhikkhu who is ascetic (dhuta) because he has shaken off (dhuta) defilement by undertaking one or other of them. Or the knowledge that has got the name “ascetic” (dhuta) because it shakes off (dhunana) defilement is a practice (aṅga) belonging to these, thus they are “ascetic practices” (dhutaṅga). Or alternatively, they are ascetic (dhuta) because they shake off (niddhunana) opposition, and they are practices (aṅga) because they are a way (paṭipatti).
This, firstly, is how the exposition should be known here as to meaning.
3 Characteristic#
§12 2. All of them have as their characteristic the volition of undertaking. For this is said [in the commentary]: “He who does the undertaking is a person. That whereby he does the undertaking is states of consciousness and consciousness-concomitants. The volition of the act of undertaking is the ascetic practice. What it rejects is the instance.” All have the function of eliminating cupidity, and they 58/116 manifest themselves with the production of non-cupidity. For their proximate cause they have the noble states consisting of fewness of wishes, and so on. 62 This is how the exposition should be known as to characteristic, etc., here.
§13 3. As regards the five beginning with the undertaking and directions: during the Blessed One’s lifetime all ascetic practices should be undertaken in the Blessed One’s presence. After his attainment of Nibbāna this should be done in the presence of a principal disciple. When he is not available it should be done in the presence of one whose cankers are destroyed, of a non-returner, of a once-returner, of a stream-enterer, of one who knows the three Piṭakas, of one who knows two of the Piṭakas, of one who knows one of the Piṭakas, of one who knows one Collection, [5] of a teacher of the Commentaries. When he is not available it should be done in the presence of an observer of an ascetic practice. When he is not available, then after one has swept out the shrine terrace they can be undertaken seated in a reverential posture as though pronouncing them in the Fully Enlightened One’s presence. Also it is permitted to undertake them by oneself.
And here should be told the story of the senior of the two brothers who were elders at Cetiyapabbata and their fewness of wishes with respect to the ascetic practices [6] (M-a II 140).
This, firstly, is what applies to all [the practices].
4 Undertaking, directions, etc.#
§14 Now, we shall proceed to comment on the undertaking, directions, grade, breach and benefits, of each one [separately].
4.1 Refuse-rag-wearer#
i. First, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice is undertaken with one of these two statements: “I refuse robes given by householders” or “I undertake the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.” This, firstly, is the undertaking.
§15 One who has done this should get a robe of one of the following kinds: one from a charnel ground, one from a shop, a cloth from a street, a cloth from a midden, one from a childbed, an ablution cloth, a cloth from a washing place, one worn going to and returning from [the charnel ground], one scorched by fire, one gnawed by cattle, one gnawed by ants, one gnawed by rats, one cut at the end, one cut at the edge, one carried as a flag, a robe from a shrine, an ascetic’s robe, one from a consecration, one produced by supernormal power, one from a highway, one borne by the wind, one presented by deities, one from the sea. Taking one of these robe cloths, he should tear off and throw away the weak parts, and then wash the sound parts and make up a robe. He can use it after getting rid of his old robe given by householders.
§16 Herein, “one from a charnel ground” is one dropped on a charnel ground.
59/117 “One from a shop” is one dropped at the door of a shop.
“A cloth from a street” is a cloth thrown into a street from inside a window by those who seek merit.
“A cloth from a midden” 63 is a cloth thrown onto a place for rubbish.
“One from a childbed” is a cloth thrown away after wiping up the stains of childbirth with it. The mother of Tissa the Minister, it seems, had the stains of childbirth wiped up with a cloth worth a hundred [pieces], and thinking, “The refuse-rag wearers will take it,” she had it thrown onto the Tālaveli Road. [7] Bhikkhus took it for the purpose of mending worn places.
§17 “An ablution cloth” is one that people who are made by devil doctors to bathe themselves, including their heads, are accustomed to throw away as a “cloth of ill luck.”
“A cloth from washing place” is rags thrown away at a washing place where bathing is done.
“One worn going to and coming from” is one that people throw away after they have gone to a charnel ground and returned and bathed.
“One scorched by fire” is one partly scorched by fire; for people throw that away.
“One gnawed by cattle,” etc., are obvious; for people throw away such as these too.
“One carried as a flag”: Those who board a ship do so after hoisting a flag. It is allowable to take this when they have gone out of sight. Also it is allowable, when the two armies have gone away, to take a flag that has been hoisted on a battlefield.
§18 “A robe from a shrine” is an offering made by draping a termite-mound [in cloth].
“An ascetic’s robe” is one belonging to a bhikkhu.
“One from a consecration” is one thrown away at the king’s consecration place. “One produced by supernormal power” is a “come-bhikkhu” robe. [8] “One from a highway” is one dropped in the middle of a road. But one dropped by the owner’s negligence should be taken only after waiting a while.
“One borne by the wind” is one that falls a long way off, having been carried by the wind. It is allowable to take it if the owners are not in sight.
“One presented by deities” is one given by deities like that given to the Elder Anuruddha (Dhp-a II 173–174).
“One from the sea” is one washed up on dry land by the sea waves.
§19 One given thus “We give it to the Order” or got by those who go out for alms-cloth is not a refuse-rag. And in the case of one presented by a bhikkhu, one given 60/118 after it has been got [at a presentation of robes by householders] at the end of the Rains, or a “resting-place robe” [that is, one automatically supplied by a householder to the occupant of a certain resting place] is not a refuse-rag. It is a refuse-rag only when given after not having been so obtained. And herein, that placed by the donors at a bhikkhu’s feet but given by that bhikkhu to the refuse-rag wearer by placing it in his hand is called pure in one way. That given to a bhikkhu by placing it in his hand but placed by him at the [refuse-rag wearer’s] feet is also pure in one way. That which is both placed at a bhikkhu’s feet and then given by him in the same way is pure in both ways. 64 One obtained by being placed in the hand and [given by being] placed in the hand too is not a strict man’s robe. So a refuse-rag wearer should use the robe after getting to know about the kinds of refuse-rags. These are the directions for it in this instance.
§20 The grades are these. There are three kinds of refuse-rag wearers: the strict, the medium, and the mild. Herein, one who takes it only from a charnel ground is strict. One who takes one left [by someone, thinking] “One gone forth will take it” is medium. One who takes one given by being placed at his feet [by a bhikkhu] is mild.
The moment anyone of these of his own choice or inclination agrees to [accept] a robe given by a householder, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§21 The benefits are these. He actually practices in conformity with the dependence, because of the words “The going forth by depending on the refuse-rag robe” (Vin I 58, 96); he is established in the first of the Noble Ones’ heritages (A II 27); there is no suffering due to protecting; he exists independent of others; there is no fear of robbers; there is no craving connected with use [of robes]; it is a requisite suitable for an ascetic; it is a requisite recommended by the Blessed One thus “valueless, easy to get, and blameless” (A II 26); it inspires confidence; it produces the fruits of fewness of wishes, etc.; the right way is cultivated; a good example is set [9] to later generations.
§22 While striving for Death’s army’s rout
This, firstly, is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice.
4.2 Triple-robe-wearer#
§23 61/119 ii. Next there is the triple-robe-wearer’s practice. This is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse a fourth robe” or “I undertake the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.” 65
When a triple-robe wearer has got cloth for a robe, he can put it by for as long as, owing to ill-health, he is unable to make it up, or for as long as he does not find a helper, or lacks a needle, etc., and there is no fault in his putting it by. But it is not allowed to put it by once it has been dyed. That is called cheating the ascetic practice. These are the directions for it.
§24 This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict should, at the time of dyeing, first dye either the inner cloth or the upper garment, and having dyed it, he should wear that round the waist and dye the other. Then he can put that on over the shoulder and dye the cloak of patches. But he is not allowed to wear the cloak of patches round the waist. This is the duty when in an abode inside a village. But it is allowable for him in the forest to wash and dye two together. However, he should sit in a place near [to the robes] so that, if he sees anyone, he can pull a yellow cloth over himself. But for the medium one there is a yellow cloth in the dyeing room for use while dyeing, and it is allowable for him to wear that [as an inner cloth] or to put it on [as an upper garment] in order to do the work of dyeing. For the mild one it is allowable to wear, or put on, the robes of bhikkhus who are in communion (i.e. not suspended, etc.) in order to do the work of dyeing. A bedspread that remains where it is [10] is also allowable for him, but he must not take it about him. And it is allowed for him to use from time to time the robes of bhikkhus who are in communion. It is allowed to one who wears the triple robe as an ascetic practice to have a yellow shoulder-cloth too as a fourth; but it must be only a span wide and three hands long.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to [accept] a fourth robe, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§25 The benefits are these. The bhikkhu who is a triple-robe wearer is content with the robe as a protection for the body. Hence he goes taking it with him as a bird does its wings (M I 180); and such special qualities as having few undertakings, avoidance of storage of cloth, a frugal existence, the abandoning of greed for many robes, living in effacement by observing moderation even in what is permitted, production of the fruits of fewness of wishes, etc., are perfected. 66
§26 No risk of hoarding haunts the man of wit
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the triple-robe-wearer’s practice.
4.3 Alms-food-eater#
§27 iii. The alms-food-eater’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse a supplementary [food] supply” or “I undertake the alms-food-eater’s practice.”
Now, this alms-food eater should not accept the following fourteen kinds of meal: a meal offered to the Order, a meal offered to specified bhikkhus, an invitation, a meal given by a ticket, one each half-moon day, one each Uposatha day, one each first of the half-moon, a meal given for visitors, a meal for travellers, a meal for the sick, a meal for sick-nurses, a meal supplied to a [particular] residence, a meal given in a principal house, [11] a meal given in turn.
If, instead of saying “Take a meal given to the Order”, [meals] are given saying “The Order is taking alms in our house; you may take alms too”, it is allowable to consent. Tickets from the Order that are not for actual food, [12] and also a meal cooked in a monastery, are allowable as well.
These are the directions for it.
§28 This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict takes alms brought both from before and from behind, and he gives the bowl to those who take it while he stands outside a door. He also takes alms brought to the refectory and given there. But he does not take alms by sitting [and waiting for it to be brought later] that day. The medium one takes it as well by sitting [and waiting for it to be brought later] that day; but he does not consent to [its being brought] the next day. The mild one consents to alms [being brought] on the next day and on the day after. Both these last miss the joy of an independent life. There is, perhaps, a preaching on the Noble Ones’ heritages (A II 28) in some village. The strict one says to the others “Let us go, friends, and listen to the Dhamma.” One of them says, “I have been made to sit [and wait] by a man, venerable sir,” and the other, “I have consented to [receive] alms tomorrow, venerable sir.” So they are both losers. The other wanders for alms in the morning and then he goes and savours the taste of the Dhamma. 67
The moment anyone of these three agrees to the extra gain consisting of a meal given to the Order, etc., his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§29 The benefits are these. He actually practices in conformity with the dependence because of the words “The going forth by depending on the eating of lumps of 63/121 alms food” (Vin II 58, 96); he is established in the second of the Noble Ones’ heritages; his existence is independent of others; it is a requisite recommended by the Blessed One thus “Valueless, easy to get, blameless” (A II 26); idleness is eliminated; livelihood is purified; the practice of the minor training rule [of the Pātimokkha] is fulfilled; he is not maintained by another; he helps others; pride is abandoned; craving for tastes is checked; the training precepts about eating as a group, substituting one meal [invitation for another] (see Vinaya, Pācittiya 33 and Comy.), and good behaviour, are not contravened; his life conforms to [the principles of] fewness of wishes; he cultivates the right way; he has compassion for later generations.
Since it is said:
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach and benefits, in the case of the alms-food-eater’s practice.
4.4 House-to-house seeker#
§31 iv. The house-to-house seeker’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements “I refuse a greedy alms round” or “I undertake the house-to-house seeker’s practice.”
Now, the house-to-house seeker should stop at the village gate and make sure that there is no danger. If there is danger in any street or village, it is allowable to leave it out and wander for alms elsewhere. When there is a house door or a street or a village where he [regularly] gets nothing at all, he can go [past it] not counting it as a village. But wherever he gets anything at all it is not allowed [subsequently] to go [past] there and leave it out. This bhikkhu should enter the village early so that he will be able to leave out any inconvenient place and go elsewhere. 68 But if people who are giving a gift [of a meal] in a monastery or who are coming along the road take his bowl and give alms food, it is allowable. And as this [bhikkhu] is going along the road, he should, when it is the time, wander for alms in any village he comes to and not pass it by. If he gets nothing there or only a little, he should wander for alms in the next village in order. These are the directions for it.
§32 This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict does not take alms brought from before or brought from behind or brought to the refectory and given there. He hands over his bowl at a door, however; for in this ascetic practice there is none equal to the Elder Mahā Kassapa, yet an instance in which even he handed over his 64/122 bowl is mentioned (see Ud 29). The medium one takes what is brought from before and from behind and what is brought to the refectory, and he hands over his bowl at a door. But he does not sit waiting for alms. Thus he conforms to the rule of the strict alms-food eater. The mild one sits waiting [for alms to be brought] that day.
The ascetic practice of these three is broken as soon as the greedy alms round starts [by going only to the houses where good alms food is given]. This is the breach in this instance.
§33 The benefits are these. He is always a stranger among families and is like the moon (S II 197); he abandons avarice about families; he is compassionate impartially; he avoids the dangers in being supported by a family; he does not delight in invitations; he does not hope for [meals] to be brought; his life conforms to [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the house-to-house-seeker’s practice. 69
4.5 One-sessioner#
§35 v. The one-sessioner’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse eating in several sessions” or “I undertake the one-sessioner’s practice.”
When the one-sessioner sits down in the sitting hall, instead of sitting on an elder’s seat, he should notice which seat is likely to fall to him and sit down on that. If his teacher or preceptor arrives while the meal is still unfinished, it is allowable for him to get up and do the duties. But the Elder Tipiṭaka Cūla-Abhaya said: “He should either keep his seat [and finish his meal] or [if he gets up he should leave the rest of] his meal [in order not to break the ascetic practice]. And this is one whose meal is still unfinished; therefore let him do the duties, but in that case let him not eat the [rest of the] meal.” These are the directions.
§36 This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict may not take anything more than the food that he has laid his hand on whether it is little or much. And if people bring him ghee, etc., thinking “The elder has eaten nothing,” while these are allowable for the purpose of medicine, they are not so for the purpose of food. The medium one may take more as long as the meal in the bowl is not exhausted; for he is called “one who stops when the food is finished.” The mild one may eat as long as he does not get up from his seat. He is either “one who stops with the water” because he eats until he takes [water for] washing the bowl, or “one who stops with the session” because he eats until he gets up.
The ascetic practice of these three is broken at the moment when food has been eaten at more than one session. This is the breach in this instance.
§37 65/123 The benefits are these. He has little affliction and little sickness; he has lightness, strength, and a happy life; there is no contravening [rules] about food that is not what is left over from a meal; craving for tastes is eliminated; his life conforms to the [principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
§38 No illness due to eating shall he feel
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the one-sessioner’s practice. 70
4.6 Bowl-food-eater#
§39 vi. The bowl-food-eater’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse a second vessel” or “I undertake the bowl-food-eater’s practice.”
When at the time of drinking rice gruel, the bowl-food eater gets curry that is put in a dish; he can first either eat the curry or drink the rice gruel. If he puts it in the rice gruel, the rice gruel becomes repulsive when a curry made with cured fish, etc., is put into it. So it is allowable [to do this] only in order to use it without making it repulsive. Consequently this is said with reference to such curry as that. But what is unrepulsive, such as honey, sugar, [13] etc., should be put into it. And in taking it he should take the right amount. It is allowable to take green vegetables with the hand and eat them. But unless he does that they should be put into the bowl. Because a second vessel has been refused it is not allowable [to use] anything else, not even the leaf of a tree. These are its directions.
§40 This too has three grades. Herein, for one who is strict, except at the time of eating sugarcane, it is not allowed [while eating] to throw rubbish away, and it is not allowed while eating to break up rice-lumps, fish, meat and cakes. [The rubbish should be thrown away and the rice-lumps, etc., broken up before starting to eat.] The medium one is allowed to break them up with one hand while eating; and he is called a “hand ascetic.” The mild one is called a “bowl ascetic”; anything that can be put into his bowl he is allowed, while eating, to break up, [that is, rice lumps, etc.,] with his hand or [such things as palm sugar, ginger, etc.,] with his teeth.
The moment anyone of these three agrees to a second vessel his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§41 The benefits are these. Craving for variety of tastes is eliminated; excessiveness of wishes is abandoned; he sees the purpose and the [right] amount in nutriment; he is not bothered with carrying saucers, etc., about; his life conforms to [the principles of] fewness of wishes and so on.
§42 He baffles doubts that might arise With extra dishes; downcast eyes
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the bowl-food-eater’s practice. 71
4.7 Late-food-refuser#
§43 vii. The later-food-refuser’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse additional food” or “I undertake the later-food-refuser’s practice.”
Now, when that later-food refuser has shown that he is satisfied, he should not again have the food made allowable [by having it put into his hands according to the rule for bhikkhus] and eat it. These are the directions for it.
§44 This too has three grades. Herein, there is no showing that he has had enough with respect to the first lump, but there is when he refuses more while that is being swallowed. So when one who is strict has thus shown that he has had enough [with respect to the second lump], he does not eat the second lump after swallowing the first. The medium one eats also that food with respect to which he has shown that he has had enough. But the mild one goes on eating until he gets up from his seat.
The moment any one of these three has eaten what has been made allowable [again] after he has shown that he has had enough, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§45 The benefits are these. One is far from committing an offence concerned with extra food; there is no overloading of the stomach; there is no keeping food back; there is no renewed search [for food]; he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
§46 When a wise man refuses later food
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the later-food-refuser’s practice.
4.8 Forest-dweller#
§47 viii. The forest-dweller’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse an abode in a village” or “I undertake the forest-dweller’s practice.”
§48 67/125 Now, that forest dweller must leave an abode in a village in order to meet the dawn in the forest. Herein, a village abode is the village itself with its precincts. A “village” may consist of one cottage or several cottages, it may be enclosed by a wall or not, have human inhabitants or not, and it can also be a caravan that is inhabited for more than four months. 72 The “village precincts” cover the range of a stone thrown by a man of medium stature standing between the gate-posts of a walled village, if there are two gate-posts, as at Anurādhapura (cf. Vin III 46). The Vinaya experts say that this [stone’s throw] is characterized as up to the place where a thrown stone falls, as, for instance, when young men exercise their arms and throw stones in order to show off their strength. But the Suttanta experts say that it is up to where one thrown to scare crows normally falls. In the case of an unwalled village, the house precinct is where the water falls when a woman standing in the door of the outermost house of all throws water from a basin. Within a stone’s throw of the kind already described from that point is the village. Within a second stone’s throw is the village precinct.
§49 “Forest,” according to the Vinaya method firstly, is described thus: “Except the village and its precincts, all is forest” (Vin III 46). According to the Abhidhamma method it is described thus: “Having gone out beyond the boundary post, all that is forest” (Vibh 251; Paṭis I 176). But according to the Suttanta method its characteristic is this: “A forest abode is five hundred bow-lengths distant” (Vin IV 183). That should be defined by measuring it with a strung instructor’s bow from the gate-post of a walled village, or from the range of the first stone’s throw from an unwalled one, up to the monastery wall.
§50 But if the monastery is not walled, it is said in the Vinaya commentaries, it should be measured by making the first dwelling of all the limit, or else the refectory or regular meeting place or Bodhi Tree or shrine, even if that is far from a dwelling [belonging to the monastery]. But in the Majjhima commentary it is said that, omitting the precincts of the monastery and the village, the distance to be measured is that between where the two stones fall. This is the measure here.
§51 Even if the village is close by and the sounds of men are audible to people in the monastery, still if it is not possible to go straight to it because of rocks, rivers, etc., in between, the five hundred bow-lengths can be reckoned by that road even if one has to go by boat. But anyone who blocks the path to the village here and there for the purpose of [lengthening it so as to be able to say that he is] taking up the practice is cheating the ascetic practice.
§52 If a forest-dwelling bhikkhu’s preceptor or teacher is ill and does not get what he needs in the forest, 73 he should take him to a village abode and attend him there. But he should leave in time to meet the dawn in a place proper for the practice. If the affliction increases towards the time of dawn, he must attend him and not bother about the purity of his ascetic practice. These are the directions.
§53 This too has three grades. Herein, one who is strict must always meet the dawn in the forest. The medium one is allowed to live in a village for the four months of the Rains. And the mild one, for the winter months too. 68/126 If in the period defined any one of these three goes from the forest and hears the Dhamma in a village abode, his ascetic practice is not broken if he meets the dawn there, nor is it broken if he meets it as he is on his way back after hearing [the Dhamma]. But if, when the preacher has got up, he thinks “We shall go after lying down awhile” and he meets the dawn while asleep or if of his own choice he meets the dawn while in a village abode, then his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§54 The benefits are these. A forest-dwelling bhikkhu who has given attention to the perception of forest (see MN 121) can obtain hitherto unobtained concentration, or preserve that already obtained. And the Master is pleased with him, according as it is said: “So, Nāgita, I am pleased with that bhikkhu’s dwelling in the forest” (A III 343). And when he lives in a remote abode his mind is not distracted by unsuitable visible objects, and so on. He is free from anxiety; he abandons attachment to life; he enjoys the taste of the bliss of seclusion, and the state of the refuse-rag wearer, etc., becomes him.
§55 He lives secluded and apart,
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the forest-dweller’s practice. 74
4.9 Tree-root-dweller#
§56 ix. The tree-root-dweller’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse a roof” or “I undertake the tree-root-dweller’s practice.”
The tree-root dweller should avoid such trees as a tree near a frontier, a shrine tree, a gum tree, a fruit tree, a bats’ tree, a hollow tree, or a tree standing in the middle of a monastery. He can choose a tree standing on the outskirts of a monastery. These are the directions.
§57 This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to have a tree that he has chosen tidied up. He can move the fallen leaves with his foot while dwelling there. The medium one is allowed to get it tidied up by those who happen to come along. The mild one can take up residence there after summoning 69/127 monastery attendants and novices and getting them to clear it up, level it, strew sand and make a fence round with a gate fixed in it. On a special day, a tree-root dweller should sit in some concealed place elsewhere rather than there.
The moment any one of these three makes his abode under a roof, his ascetic practice is broken. The reciters of the Aṅguttara say that it is broken as soon as he knowingly meets the dawn under a roof. This is the breach in this instance.
§58 The benefits are these. He practices in conformity with the dependence, because of the words “The going forth by depending on the root of a tree as an abode” (Vin I 58, 96); it is a requisite recommended by the Blessed One thus “Valueless, easy to get, and blameless” (A II 26); perception of impermanence is aroused through seeing the continual alteration of young leaves; avarice about abodes and love of [building] work are absent; he dwells in the company of deities; he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the tree-root-dweller’s practice.
4.10 Open-air-dweller#
§60 x. The open-air-dweller’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse a roof and a tree root” or “I undertake the open-air-dweller’s practice.”
An open-air dweller is allowed to enter the Uposatha-house for the purpose of hearing the Dhamma or for the purpose of the Uposatha. If it rains while he is inside, he can go out when the rain is over instead of going out while it is still raining. He is allowed to enter the eating hall or the fire room in order to do the duties, or to go under a roof in order to ask elder bhikkhus in the eating hall about a meal, or when teaching and taking lessons, or to take beds, chairs, etc., inside that have been wrongly left outside. If he is going along a road with a requisite belonging to a senior and it rains, he is allowed to go into a wayside rest house. If he has nothing with him, he is not allowed to hurry in order to get to a rest house; 70/128 but he can go at his normal pace and enter it and stay there as long as it rains. These are the directions for it. And the same rule applies to the tree-root dweller too.
§61 This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to live near a tree or a rock or a house. He should make a robe-tent right out in the open and live in that. The medium one is allowed to live near a tree or a rock or a house so long as he is not covered by them. The mild one is allowed these: a [rock] overhang without a drip-ledge cut in it, [15] a hut of branches, cloth stiffened with paste, and a tent treated as a fixture, that has been left by field watchers, and so on.
The moment any one of these three goes under a roof or to a tree root to dwell there, 76 his ascetic practice is broken. The reciters of the Aṅguttara say that it is broken as soon as he knowingly meets the dawn there. This is the breach in this case.
§62 The benefits are these: the impediment of dwellings is severed; stiffness and torpor are expelled; his conduct deserves the praise “Like deer the bhikkhus live unattached and homeless” (S I 199); he is detached; he is [free to go in] any direction; he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the open-air-dweller’s practice.
4.11 Charnel-groud-dweller#
§64 xi. The charnel-ground-dweller’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse what is not a charnel ground” or “I undertake the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice.” 71/129 Now, the charnel-ground dweller should not live in some place just because the people who built the village have called it “the charnel ground” for it is not a charnel ground unless a dead body has been burnt on it. But as soon as one has been burnt on it, it becomes a charnel ground. And even if it has been neglected for a dozen years, it is so still.
§65 One who dwells there should not be the sort of person who gets walks, pavilions, etc., built, has beds and chairs set out and drinking and washing water kept ready, and preaches Dhamma; for this ascetic practice is a momentous thing. Whoever goes to live there should be diligent. And he should first inform the senior elder of the Order or the king’s local representative in order to prevent trouble. When he walks up and down, he should do so looking at the pyre with half an eye. 77 On his way to the charnel ground he should avoid the main roads and take a by-path. He should define all the objects [there] while it is day, so that they will not assume frightening shapes for him at night. Even if non-human beings wander about screeching, he must not hit them with anything. It is not allowed to miss going to the charnel ground even for a single day. The reciters of the Aṅguttara say that after spending the middle watch in the charnel ground he is allowed to leave in the last watch. He should not take such foods as sesame flour, pease pudding, fish, meat, milk, oil, sugar, etc., which are liked by non-human beings. He should not enter the homes of families. [16] These are the directions for it.
§66 This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict should live where there are always burnings and corpses and mourning. The medium one is allowed to live where there is one of these three. The mild one is allowed to live in a place that possesses the bare characteristics of a charnel ground already stated.
When any one of these three makes his abode in some place not a charnel ground, his ascetic practice is broken. It is on the day on which he does not go to the charnel ground, the Aṅguttara reciters say. This is the breach in this case.
§67 The benefits are these. He acquires mindfulness of death; he lives diligently; the sign of foulness is available (see Ch. VI); greed for sense desires is removed; he constantly sees the body’s true nature; he has a great sense of urgency; he abandons vanity of health, etc.; he vanquishes fear and dread (MN 4); non-human beings respect and honour him; he lives in conformity with [the principles of] fewness of wishes, and so on.
72/130 This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the charnel-ground dweller’s practice. 78
4.12 Any-bed-user#
§69 xii. The any-bed-user’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse greed for resting places” or “I undertake the any-bed-user’s practice.”
The any-bed user should be content with whatever resting place he gets thus: “This falls to your lot.” He must not make anyone else shift [from his bed]. These are the directions.
§70 This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed to ask about the resting place that has fallen to his lot: “Is it far?” or “Is it too near?” or “Is it infested by non-human beings, snakes, and so on?” or “Is it hot?” or “Is it cold?”. The medium one is allowed to ask, but not to go and inspect it. The mild one is allowed to inspect it and, if he does not like it, to choose another.
As soon as greed for resting places arises in any one of these three, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§71 The benefits are these. The advice “He should be content with what he gets” (J-a I 476; Vin IV 259) is carried out; he regards the welfare of his fellows in the life of purity; he gives up caring about inferiority and superiority; approval and disapproval are abandoned; the door is closed against excessive wishes; he lives in conformity with [the principles] of fewness of wishes, and so on.
§72 One vowed to any bed will be
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the any-bed-user’s practice.
4.13 Sitter#
§73 xiii. The sitter’s practice is undertaken with one of the following statements: “I refuse lying down” or “I undertake the sitter’s practice.”
The sitter can get up in any one of three watches of the night and walk up and down: for lying down is the only posture not allowed. These are the directions. 79
§74 This has three grades too. Herein, one who is strict is not allowed a back-rest or cloth band or binding-strap [to prevent falling while asleep]. [17] The medium one 73/131 is allowed any one of these three. The mild one is allowed a back-rest, a cloth band, a binding-strap, a cushion, a “five-limb” and a “seven-limb.” A “five-limb” is [a chair] made with [four legs and] a support for the back. A “seven-limb” is one made with [four legs,] a support for the back and an [arm] support on each side. They made that, it seems, for the Elder Pīṭhābhaya (Abhaya of the Chair). The elder became a non-returner, and then attained Nibbāna.
As soon as any one of these three lies down, his ascetic practice is broken. This is the breach in this instance.
§75 The benefits are these. The mental shackle described thus, “He dwells indulging in the pleasure of lying prone, the pleasure of lolling, the pleasure of torpor” (M I 102), is severed; his state is suitable for devotion to any meditation subject; his deportment inspires confidence; his state favours the application of energy; he develops the right practice.
This is the commentary on the undertaking, directions, grades, breach, and benefits, in the case of the sitter’s practice.
§77 Now, there is the commentary according to the stanza:
5 Profitable triad#
§78 4. Herein, as to the profitable triad: (Dhs , p. 1) all the ascetic practices, that is to say, those of trainers, ordinary men, and men whose cankers have been destroyed, may be either profitable or [in the Arahant’s case] indeterminate. 80 No ascetic practice is unprofitable.
§79 But if someone should say: There is also an unprofitable ascetic practice because of the words “One of evil wishes, a prey to wishes, becomes a forest dweller” (A III 219), etc., he should be told: We have not said that he does not live in the forest with unprofitable consciousness. Whoever has his dwelling in the forest is a forest dweller; and he may be one of evil wishes or of few wishes. But, as it was said above (§11), they “are the practices (aṅga) of a bhikkhu who is ascetic (dhuta) because he has shaken off (dhuta) defilement by undertaking one or other of them. Or the 74/132 knowledge that has got the name “ascetic” (dhuta) because it shakes off (dhunana) defilement is a practice (aṅga) belonging to these, thus they are “ascetic practices” (dhutaṅga). Or alternatively, they are ascetic (dhuta) because they shake off (niddhunana) opposition, and they are practices (aṅga) because they are a way (paṭipatti).” Now, no one called “ascetic” on account of what is unprofitable could have these as his practices; nor does what is unprofitable shake off anything so that those things to which it belonged as a practice could be called “ascetic practices.” And what is unprofitable does not both shake off cupidity for robes, etc., and become the practice of the way. Consequently it was rightly said that no ascetic practice is unprofitable. And those who hold that an ascetic practice is outside the profitable triad [18] have no ascetic practice as regards meaning. Owing to the shaking off of what is non-existent could it be called an ascetic practice? Also there are the words “Proceeded to undertake the ascetic qualities” (Vin III 15), and it follows [19] that those words are contradicted. So that should not be accepted.
This, in the first place, is the commentary on the profitable triad.
6 Ascetic and so on distinguished#
§80 5. As to “ascetic and so on distinguished,” the following things should be understood, that is to say, ascetic, a preacher of asceticism, ascetic states, ascetic practices, and for whom the cultivation of ascetic practices is suitable.
§81 Herein, ascetic means either a person whose defilements are shaken off, or a state that entails shaking off defilements.
A preacher of asceticism: one is ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism, another is not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism, another is neither ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism, and another is both ascetic and a preacher of asceticism.
§82 Herein, one who has shaken off his defilements with an ascetic practice but does not advise and instruct another in an ascetic practice, like the Elder Bakkula, is “ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism,” according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Bakkula was ascetic but not a preacher of asceticism.”
One who 81 has not shaken off his own defilements but only advises and instructs another in an ascetic practice, like the Elder Upananda, is “not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism,” according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Upananda son of the Sakyans was not ascetic but a preacher of asceticism.”
One who has failed in both, like Lāḷudāyin, is “neither ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism,” according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Lāḷudāyin was neither ascetic nor a preacher of asceticism.” 75/133 One who has succeeded in both, like the General of the Dhamma, is “both ascetic and a preacher of asceticism,” according as it is said: “Now, the venerable Sāriputta was ascetic and a preacher of asceticism.”
§83 Ascetic states: the five states that go with the volition of an ascetic practice, that is to say, fewness of wishes, contentment, effacement, seclusion, and that specific quality [20] are called “ascetic states’ because of the words “Depending on fewness of wishes” (A III 219), and so on.
§84 Herein, fewness of wishes and contentment are non-greed. Effacement and seclusion belong to the two states, non-greed and non-delusion. That specific quality is knowledge. Herein, by means of non-greed a man shakes off greed for things that are forbidden. By means of non-delusion he shakes off the delusion that hides the dangers in those same things. And by means of non-greed he shakes off indulgence in pleasure due to sense desires that occurs under the heading of using what is allowed. And by means of non-delusion he shakes off indulgence in self-mortification that occurs under the heading of excessive effacement in the ascetic practices. That is why these states should be understood as “ascetic states.”
§85 Ascetic practices: these should be understood as the thirteen, that is to say, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice … the sitter’s practice, which have already been described as to meaning and as to characteristic, and so forth.
§86 For whom the cultivation of ascetic practices is suitable: [they are suitable] for one of greedy temperament and for one of deluded temperament. Why? Because the cultivation of ascetic practices is both a difficult progress [21] and an abiding in effacement; and greed subsides with the difficult progress, while delusion is got rid of in those diligent by effacement. Or the cultivation of the forest-dweller’s practice and the tree-root-dweller’s practice here are suitable for one of hating temperament; for hate too subsides in one who dwells there without coming into conflict.
This is the commentary “as to ‘ascetic’ and so on distinguished.” 82
7 Groups#
§87 6. and 7. As to groups and also singly. Now, 6. as to groups: these ascetic practices are in fact only eight, that is to say, three principal and five individual practices. Herein, the three, namely, the house-to-house-seeker’s practice, the one-sessioner’s practice, and the open-air-dweller’s practice, are principal practices. For one who keeps the house-to-house-seeker’s practice will keep the alms-food-eater’s practice; and the bowl-food-eater’s practice and the later-food-refuser’s practice will be well kept by one who keeps the one-sessioner’s practice. And what need has one who keeps the open-air-dweller’s practice to keep the tree-root-dweller’s practice or the any-bed-user’s practice? So there are these three principal practices that, 76/134 together with the five individual practices, that is to say, the forest-dweller’s practice, the refuse-rag-wearer’s practice, the triple-robe-wearer’s practice, the sitter’s practice, and the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice, come to eight only.
§88 Again they come to four, that is to say, two connected with robes, five connected with alms food, five connected with the resting place, and one connected with energy. Herein, it is the sitter’s practice that is connected with energy; the rest are obvious.
Again they all amount to two only, since twelve are dependent on requisites and one on energy. Also they are two according to what is and what is not to be cultivated. For when one cultivating an ascetic practice finds that his meditation subject improves, he should cultivate it; but when he is cultivating one and finds that his meditation subject deteriorates, he should not cultivate it. But when he finds that, whether he cultivates one or not, his meditation subject only improves and does not deteriorate, he should cultivate them out of compassion for later generations. And when he finds that, whether he cultivates them or not, his meditation subject does not improve, he should still cultivate them for the sake of acquiring the habit for the future. So they are of two kinds as what is and what is not to be cultivated.
§89 And all are of one kind as volition. For there is only one ascetic practice, namely, that consisting in the volition of undertaking. Also it is said in the Commentary: “It is the volition that is the ascetic practice, they say.”
8 Singly#
§90 7. Singly: with thirteen for bhikkhus, eight for bhikkhunīs, twelve for novices, seven for female probationers and female novices, and two for male and female lay followers, there are thus forty-two.
§91 If there is a charnel ground in the open that complies with the forest-dweller’s practice, one bhikkhu is able to put all the ascetic practices into effect simultaneously.
But the two, namely, the forest-dweller’s practice and the later-food-refuser’s practice, are forbidden to bhikkhunīs by training precept. 83 And it is hard for them to observe the three, namely, the open-air-dweller’s practice, the tree-root-dweller’s practice, and the charnel-ground-dweller’s practice, because a bhikkhunī is not allowed to live without a companion, and it is hard to find a female companion with like desire for such a place, and even if available, she would not escape having to live in company. This being so, the purpose of cultivating the ascetic practice would scarcely be served. It is because they are reduced by five owing to this inability to make use of certain of them that they are to be understood as eight only for bhikkhunīs.
§92 Except for the triple-robe-wearer’s practice all the other twelve as stated should be understood to be for novices, and all the other seven for female probationers and female novices.
The two, namely, the one-sessioner’s practice and the bowl-food-eater’s practice, are proper for male and female lay followers to employ. In this way there are two ascetic practices.
This is the commentary “as to groups and also singly.”
§93 77/135 And this is the end of the treatise on the ascetic practices to be undertaken for the purpose of perfecting those special qualities of fewness of wishes, contentment, etc., by means of which there comes about the cleansing of virtue as described in the Path of Purification, which is shown under the three headings of virtue, concentration, and understanding, contained in the stanza, “When a wise man, established well in virtue” (I.1).
The second chapter called “The Description of the Ascetic Practices” in the Path of Purification composed for the purpose of gladdening good people.
Footnotes